Rabbi Elazar Birabi Kalir

Historical, Geographical and Liturgical Background in the Land of Israel

Rabbi Elazar Birabi Kalir (or the Kalir) is considered one of the first and greatest of the liturgical poets of Israel, and the one who to a large extent shaped the character of sacred poetry.^[1] Historical and philological research places his geographical activity in the Land of Israel, where, according to the findings and the accepted estimates, he worked mainly in the city of Tiberias.^[1] Chronologically, his lifetime is assigned to the final years of Byzantine rule in the Land of Israel, close to the Arab conquest of the region, that is, around the year 637 CE.^[1] In the liturgical tradition the Kalir is described as the leading disciple of the early Land-of-Israel paytan Yannai, from whom he received the foundations of complex liturgical composition.^[1]

The Kalir's liturgical teaching is deeply anchored in the ancient customs of the Land of Israel as they were practised before the Babylonian rite took over the prayer books. These distinctive Land-of-Israel customs are reflected in the structure of the kerovot (types of piyyut intended for the cantor's repetition) that he composed for the Amidah prayers.^[1] Thus, for example, in his kerovot the Kalir used to include and merge the blessing "Et tzemach David" ("the offspring of David") within the blessing "Boneh Yerushalayim" ("Who builds Jerusalem"), in accordance with the ancient rite of the Land of Israel and in contrast to the Babylonian custom, which separates them.^[1] Another prominent example is the incorporation of the verses of "Shema Yisrael" into the Kedushah of the morning service, an element that is a distinctive liturgical hallmark of the original Land-of-Israel custom.^[1] His extensive oeuvre, which includes hundreds of piyyutim for all the festivals of the year and for special Sabbaths, struck deep roots and became an inseparable part of the prayer books of many communities throughout the generations.^[1]

The Kaliric Style and His Poetic Method: Rhyme, Language and Coinages

The literary style of Rabbi Elazar Birabi Kalir is considered one of the most complex and influential styles in the history of Hebrew poetry.^[2] It is marked by linguistic density, by the coining of new verbs and verbal patterns, and by a pioneering use of rich sound-play.^{[2, 3]} A classic example of the rigid and mysterious formal structure of his poetry appears in the piyyut "Atz kotzetz ben kotzetz", part of a kedushta (a cycle of piyyutim for the cantor's repetition) composed for Shabbat Zakhor.^{[1, 4, 5]} In this piyyut the Kalir presents a strict structure of fourteen stanzas, each stanza consisting of two lines of two cola, with only two to four words in each colon.^[5] Another prominent example of his work is the piyyut "Ba-lashon asher hizkarta le-zokhrekha" ("In the language with which You reminded those who remember You"), which is likewise part of the same complex cycle of piyyutim for Shabbat Zakhor, and which received many commentaries over the generations, among them a unique commentary found in a Hamburg manuscript from 1317.^[4]

One of the Kalir's important contributions to the development of Hebrew poetry is the refinement of the mechanism of rhyme. Whereas early Hebrew poetry relied on simple grammatical rhyme, based on uniform grammatical endings such as the plural endings "-im" or "-ot" (something at times regarded as too easy and simple a rhyme), the Kalir developed far more complex methods of rhyme.^[3] To enrich the rhyme, the Kalir introduced the combination of additional consonants before the final vowel, the transposition of sounds, and the use of near phonetic rhyme, which makes it possible to link words of similar pronunciation despite their different spelling.^[3]

Beyond the structure of rhyme and sound, the Kalir's work is marked by a synthesis of biblical Hebrew, the Hebrew of the Sages and the aggadic midrashim. He creates a complete mosaic in which every word is charged with interpretive connotations. A clear example of this mechanism can be identified in his famous dew piyyut, "Tal ten lirtzot artzakh" ("Give dew to favour Your land"), in which the prayers for rain and dew are woven into the national vision of the redemption of the people of Israel.^[6]

In this piyyut the opening line, "Tal ten lirtzot artzakh" ("Give dew to favour Your land"), rests on the verse in Psalms "Lord, Thou hast been favourable unto Thy land" (ratzita Adonai artzekha).^[6] The request "Shitenu verakha be-ditzakh... rov dagan ve-tirosh" ("Make us a blessing in Your joy... plenty of corn and wine"), accompanied by the expectation of abundance, corresponds directly with Isaac's blessing to Jacob in the Book of Genesis.^[6] Further on in the piyyut, the call "Kom ir bah heftzakh" ("Raise up the city in which is Your delight") is based on Isaiah's prophecy "for thou shalt be called Hephzibah (My delight is in her)" ^[6], while the image "ir ka-sukkah noteret" ("a city left like a booth") draws on Isaiah's description of the destruction, of the daughter of Zion left like a booth in a vineyard.^[6] The use of the dew motif is not exhausted by a request for physical precipitation, but is connected with the vision of national resurrection of the dead, inspired by the verse in Isaiah "for thy dew is as the dew of light".^[6]

The Kalir's Torah Teaching and His Halakhic Standing

Beyond the admiration felt for him as a poet and paytan, Rabbi Elazar Birabi Kalir held a weighty halakhic and Torah standing among the sages of later generations, and especially in the Torah tradition of Ashkenazi Jewry. His piyyutim were not seen as a merely decorative addition, but as Torah sources transmitting ancient halakhic and cosmological traditions.

Clear evidence of this standing emerges from the words of the Tosafot in Tractate Hagigah.^[1] The Gemara there discusses the cosmic heavenly distances and the stature of the angels, and states that the legs of the Living Creatures (hayyot) measure a journey of five hundred years.^[1] The Tosafists cite as proof and interpretive authority the Kalir's piyyut, in which it is stated that the legs of the hayyot measure a journey of 515 (tav-kof-tet-vav) years.^[1] The Tosafists' reliance on the Kalir's piyyutim to decide theological and cosmological questions makes clear that the sages of Ashkenaz saw in the Kalir's work a reliable Tannaitic or Amoraic tradition that is not to be doubted.

The placing of the Kalir's piyyutim at the centre of prayer gave rise to a broad halakhic controversy over the question of "interruption" (hefsek) in prayer and in the blessings of the Shema.^[7] The parallel controversy concerning the recitation of the piyyut "Akdamut" on the festival of Shavuot illustrates this halakhic complexity well.^[7] The original Ashkenazi custom was to recite the piyyut "Akdamut" during the Torah reading, immediately after the reading of the first verse, "In the third month".^[7] Later decisors sought to abolish this custom, arguing that it constitutes a forbidden interruption between the blessing and the reading and that it is not related to the subject of the reading.^[7]

However, the defenders of the custom relied on the halakhic precedent of the Kalir's piyyutim.^[7] They argued that if it is permitted to interrupt the blessings of the Shema and the cantor's repetition (which are far more serious than the Torah reading, so much so that even a kohen who is in the middle of the Shema may not interrupt in order to be called up to the Torah) for piyyutim composed for the order of prayer, then all the more so (kal va-chomer) is it permitted to interrupt the Torah reading for special piyyutim composed for it.^[7]

The sages of Ashkenaz gave binding halakhic force to the custom of reciting the Kalir's piyyutim. In Sefer Hasidim (§114) it is stated explicitly that one who changes the custom of the ancients and replaces the Kalir's kerovot with other piyyutim transgresses the prohibition "Thou shalt not remove thy neighbour's landmark".^[7] This tradition was sanctified by the greatest sages of Ashkenaz, among them the Maharil (Rabbi Yaakov Molin) and the Mahara Tyrnau, whose books of customs fixed the Kalir's piyyutim as a binding and unalterable part of the communal order of prayer.^[7]

The Piyyut Controversy: Ibn Ezra's Criticism versus the Defence of the Sages of Ashkenaz

The deep differences between the world of thought and grammar of the Golden Age in Spain and the spiritual world and custom of the sages of Ashkenaz converged in a sharp controversy over the Kalir's piyyutim. This controversy reveals two utterly opposed approaches to language, to prayer and to historical authority.

In his commentary on the Book of Ecclesiastes (chapter 5, verse 1), Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra formulates a systematic and incisive criticism of the Kalir's language and style, pointing to four fundamental failings that characterise his piyyutim.^{[2, 8]}

The first thing that arouses Ibn Ezra's opposition is the extensive use of riddles and obscure parables, which make it hard for the worshipper to understand what he is saying.^{[2, 9]} Ibn Ezra gives as an example the line "Li-re'i yakpil, va-hadashim yakhpil", and presents the perplexity of the commentators of his generation trying to decipher whether the meaning is the Messiah who folds up the earth, the concealment of new idols, or perhaps the folding up of the heavens, likened to a solid mirror.^[9] In his view, public prayer intended for masses who are not learned must avoid such vague allusions and learn from the clear prayers of Solomon and Daniel.^{[8, 9]}

The second difficulty stems from the Kalir's departure from the rules of grammar of the standard Holy Tongue and his creation of verbs and verbal patterns that do not exist in Scripture.^[2] The third difficulty lies in the incorporation of aggadic midrashim that do not accord with the plain sense of the verses or with established halakha.^[8] Finally, Ibn Ezra sharply criticises the practice of addressing God by direct metaphorical epithets without the kaf of comparison ("like"), such as addressing God by the epithet "lion" or "fire".^[9] He warns that such usage may lead to inner idolatry, for it is inconceivable that a person would pray "Blessed are You, Lion" or say "Happy are the people who worship fire" merely because Scripture used these images metaphorically.^[9]

To establish his right to criticise the compositions of so ancient and esteemed a paytan, Ibn Ezra declares that the search for linguistic and interpretive truth takes precedence over blind submission to the authority of the past.^[8] Relying on the principle "the ear trieth words", he recalls that even the prophet Daniel, who was wise and chief over the magicians of Babylon, erred in his calculations according to the Sages' determination, and therefore there is no obstacle to criticising the words of the ancients where clear errors have occurred.^[8]

In contrast to Ibn Ezra's rationalist and scientific approach, the sages of Ashkenaz, headed by Rabbenu Tam (who maintained deep Torah ties with Ibn Ezra during his travels in Europe), came to the Kalir's defence.^{[7, 10]} They argued that the Kalir's mysterious and dense language does not stem from a lack of understanding of grammar, but reflects a deliberate intention to conceal profound theological ideas.^[7] In their view, the piyyutim of the Kalir and his fellows were founded on awesome and profound kabbalistic secrets, and changing the text fixed by the ancients could damage the spiritual and magical effect of the prayer.^[7]

The Development of Modern Scholarship and New Discoveries in the Genizah

The discussion of the figure and work of Rabbi Elazar Birabi Kalir enjoyed a renewed flowering in modern times thanks to the development of Jewish studies and the discovery of the Cairo Genizah. Modern piyyut research has succeeded in uncovering hundreds of the Kalir's piyyutim that had been forgotten from the accepted liturgy of the European festival prayer books, and that had been preserved only among the communities of the Middle East and in the Genizah library.

Contemporary philological studies shed new light on the complexity of the Kalir's work and present critical editions that make it possible to decipher his original intentions:

In 5782 (2022) Dr. Ophir Münz-Manor published a critical edition of, and a detailed introduction to, the Kalir's Hanukkah piyyutim, showing his flexibility and linguistic richness in minor festivals.^[2]

In 5784 (2024) Prof. Shulamit Elizur published a monumental edition of the piyyutim of Rabbi Elazar Birabi Kalir for the festival of Sukkot and for Shemini Atzeret, accompanied by historical introductions and comprehensive philological annotations.^[2]

The studies of Elizur and Münz-Manor demonstrate that the Kalir's liturgical genius extended over the entire world of Midrash and halakha, and that, despite Ibn Ezra's linguistic criticism, the inflexibility of the Spanish rules of grammar missed the poetic, sonic and intellectual innovation that the Kalir gave the Hebrew language in a period of fateful cultural and political upheavals in the Land of Israel.^{[1, 2]}